About English - Language

Especially for Teachers - About English

Language

About the Language strand
Contextual understanding
Linguistic structures and features
Strategies
Creating contexts for teaching about language
Teaching the language of visual texts
Summary
For more information

About the Language strand

Texts and Language are the two strands of content in English. The Text strand explains the types of texts that students encounter at each band. The Language strand explains exactly what students need to learn as they create, use, interpret and analyse texts.

Language refers to spoken, written and visual language. Visual language includes things like: camera angles, colour, composition, framing, pace, and visual allusions. Many teachers of English are exploring visual language with their students and new resources have been developed to help. As you travel through this website you will find plenty of specific examples.

The Language Strand is composed of three interrelated parts: Contextual Understanding; Linguistic Structures and Features; and Strategies.

Contextual understanding - situational context and socio-cultural context

Contextual understanding refers to students' understanding of how context influences the way people use language. Two aspects of context are important for teachers of English, situational context and socio-cultural context.

When they learn to consider situational context, students learn how their choice of language in a particular situation is influenced by purpose, subject matter, the mode of communication and the roles and relationships between the speaker or writer and the audience. Changing any one of these things changes the ways in which language is used.

Even the youngest students have some intuitive understanding of situational context. They know that talking to someone they know is different from talking to someone they don't know. They understand that they use language differently when asking for a favour or warning about danger. To help students build on this intuitive understanding, teachers expand the range of purposes and audiences for composing and comprehending and help students to think about how these influence their language use.

Both the English Statement and Profile give detailed guidance about the range of purposes and audiences appropriate at different bands. Under each of the text-types - literary, mass media and everyday - purposes and audiences are specified. In Band A, for example, under everyday spoken texts, there is an emphasis on communicating with various people at school such as peers, teachers, parents and caregivers. In Band B the emphasis is on how everyday talk in the classroom and playground can affect relationships between peers. In Band C, students consider the differences that size and composition of the audience make to the language of spoken texts. In Band D, students prepare presentations for less familiar audiences, anticipating their ability to deal with the material presented and tailoring presentations to suit.

Socio-cultural context.is the other aspect of context that powerfully influences language use. It is this aspect of context that teachers focus on when they talk about critical literacy. Factors that have an impact on socio-cultural context include the values, attitudes, beliefs and assumptions held by the creator of a text and its audience. Some of the kinds of contextual understanding essential to effective language use are outlined in the English statement and reproduced below:

To use English appropriately, effectively and critically in a wide range of situations, students need to know:

That there is a standard variety of English, distinguishable by its grammar and vocabulary (but not necessarily by its accent), which is the language of formal spoken communication, the education system and professional life. Failure to use it in certain situations may be judged negatively and carry penalties.

That the language used by a socio-cultural group is closely connected with its values, attitudes and beliefs, and that learning any variety of language involves understanding and interpreting the culture of which it is a part.

That the ways in which people use language both reflect and shape the values, attitudes and assumptions of their socio-cultural group. This is particularly important in relation to gender, ethnicity and status, as texts can shape our views on a whole range of identity issues (for example the aspirations possible for men and women and for Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders).

That language is constructed, used and manipulated in powerful ways to influence others.

That because people interpret texts in the light of their own socio-cultural values and understandings, texts will have different meanings for different people. Students need to develop the ability to interpret texts, including texts they write themselves, from perspectives other than their own.

That although many languages and varieties of the English language are used in Australia, none is intrinsically superior to another.

A statement on English for Australian schools (1995), Curriculum Corporation, Victoria.

To teach students about socio-cultural context, teachers aim to take away the 'naturalness' of texts so that they are not mis-perceived as neutral. This makes it easier for students to investigate the values and assumptions that underpin them. Looking at texts from the past can make this clearer for students, because the values and attitudes may stand out more clearly. One way of taking away the 'naturalness' of more recent texts is to focus on the choices their creators have made. Comparing texts on the same topic and creating alternative texts based on different values and assumptions help students to see how language is chosen and crafted in response to context.
These are some examples of classroom activities that teachers use to help teach socio-cultural contextual understanding.

Students compare the way a family is represented in a picture book with their own families. This kind of activity helps students to see that there is more than one image of a family that authors and illustrators could present, and that deliberate choices have been made. (Band A example taken from the profile)

Before reading a picture book such as Counting on Frank, groups of students are given different roles in which to read, such as mothers, fathers, maths experts and people the same age as the main character who dislike maths. The groups are asked to discuss their responses in role, and give the book a rating out of 10. They then present their ratings to the class and explain what they based their judgement on. This kind of activity helps students to see that people with different backgrounds and experiences may reach very different interpretations of the same text.
(from key teacher workshop run by Deirdre Travers)

Students analyse the heroes in a range of cartoons to see which socio-cultural groups are represented, considering aspects such as accent, apparent wealth, age, gender, perceived attractiveness, social class and country of origin. They discuss the values and beliefs that can be seen to underpin such choices. Groups of students then create their own alternative heroes, aiming to cut across the stereotypes. They evaluate the effectiveness of the range of heroes created by the class. This activity enables students to see how certain socio-cultural features may be given positive or negative associations in texts.

Students look at a collection of photos of a public figure, chosen by the teacher from recent newspapers or magazines. Half the students work in pairs to construct a headline and choose a photo for a newspaper article critical of the person's recent actions, while the other half do the same for an article that supports the actions. Working in clusters of two or three pairs, they present their headlines and photos to each other, explaining their choices and discussing the differences among them. Each cluster can present a summary of their findings to the class. Students then look closely at two or three recent articles featuring a public figure they are interested in, such as a sports star or actor. They tease out the attitudes and values that are implied in choices of photographs and headlines. This kind of activity helps students to understand how texts that may seem to be quite objective, such as photographs, are actually constructed and presented to favour particular interpretations.

Linguistic Structures and Features

Linguistic Structures and Features is the title used to describe text features such as style, organisation, and conventions of language. In spoken texts, linguistic structures and features include tone of voice and intonation patterns, stress, non-verbal cues such as facial expressions, and organisational devices such as introductions, conclusions, and comparisons. In written texts, they include paragraphing, headings, spelling, punctuation, and grammar. In visual texts, they include camera angles, characters' dress, colours, and sound effects. The emphasis is on developing students' understanding of the effects created by using these structures and features in particular ways.

Classroom activities used to teach about linguistic structures and features include:

retelling
developing features lists
viewing and analysing spoken texts on video
joint construction of text
guided writing
guided reading

Strategies

This term refers to the strategies that students use to compose, comprehend and respond to texts effectively. Teachers help students to develop a conscious awareness of strategies they can use in various situations.
Strategies for speaking and listening include strategies for:

listening for specific purposes
monitoring understanding
interpreting meaning
participating in discussions and meetings
presenting formal talks
evaluating performances of spoken texts
Strategies for reading and viewing include strategies for:

selecting texts
reading or viewing for specific purposes
monitoring understanding
interpreting meaning
coping with difficult texts
recording and organising information.
Strategies for writing include strategies for:

planning and preparing for writing
drafting
reviewing, revising and proofreading
spelling
presenting the written product.
In the classroom, teachers explicitly teach strategies through:

demonstrating

think alouds

developing features lists

joint construction

students constructing in pairs and groups

using proformas for planning, noting and recording

using checklists for reviewing, editing and proof-reading

( Deirdre Travers- key teacher workshop)

Creating contexts for teaching about language

Language is most easily and effectively learned when students have clear and authentic purposes. Experienced teachers know, for example, that it is most appropriate for students to learn about the features of formal letters when they have real letters to write and send, and are likely to receive real letters in reply. In planning a term's activities, they include letter writing in author study or research rather than treating it in isolation.
Composing, interpreting and analysing texts are complementary ways of learning about language. When students compose their own texts, they have a genuine purpose for analysing other people's texts to see how they work. When they analyse texts, they gain insight into possibilities for creating their own texts. So effective programs provide a balance of ways of working with texts.

Teaching the language of visual texts

English teachers have been both challenged and inspired by the inclusion of a range of visual texts in the curriculum. For illustrations of how Tasmanian teachers have taught students about the language of visual texts, have a look at Sue Clennett's Grade 3/4 unit, Helen Behrens' Prep/1 unit, and Annette Moult's grade 7/8 unit.
Many of the English key teachers have found the following framework, developed by Deirdre Travers, particularly useful.

A framework for analysing visual texts.
Some different kinds of questions you can ask.

Structures and features
What techniques were used and why? For example, if it is a print text consider use of objects, size, setting, colour, lighting, position, direction, ways of grouping, angle, light, clothing and body language. If it is an electronic text you might consider aspects of sound, design, editing, camera techniques and acting.
What effects do these techniques have?

Producers (situational context)
Who made this text?
What was involved in making this text?
Why did they present it this way?
Who benefits?

Audience (situational context)
Who is the audience for this text?
Why is the text presented in this way for this audience?
How else could it have been presented for the audience?
How could it have been presented for a different audience?
How are you positioned to read this text?
Can you read it differently, such as from a different point of view?

Culture (socio-cultural context)
What is valued in this text?
How are the characters shown and why?
Who is included and why?
Who is not included and why not?
If you changed the age, sex or culture of any of the characters what difference would it make?
What is the effect for groups not included in this text?
What cultural understanding and knowledge does the text assume?
If all you knew about the world was from this text, what would you think it was like?

Summary

The Language strand of English describes what students need to learn as they interpret, analyse and create the kinds of texts outlined in the Text strand.
The Language strand is composed of three interrelated parts: contextual understanding; linguistic structures and features; and strategies.
Students need to learn about the language of visual, written and oral texts.
Language is best learned in the context of authentic purposes and audiences.
Students need opportunities to create, interpret and analyse the text types they are working with. A balance of activities is most likely to increase students' understanding of how language works.

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Critical literacy
Book and software information
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