Alternative Readings
texts may be read differently according to the socio-economic background, sex, gender or ethnicity of the reader and by the way the author positions the reader in using particular features and meanings which may reflect a particular set of values and attitudes. (see also contextual understanding and deconstruction)

Applications
applications form a major part of the Senior Secondary English syllabuses, where students apply their knowledge of language and texts to create products. Applications are designed to encourage collaborative work among students and involve authentic or real-world tasks, often providing connections to the wider community. Applications may act as an extension of other parts of the syllabus or may provide a balance in the overall course of study. Unlike the extended negotiated learning component of the syllabuses, the focus of an application is decided by the teacher.

Audience
the target group(s) for which a text is crafted. Students need to appreciate the influence and demands of a range of audiences in composing and comprehending texts. (see also contextual understanding and critical literacy)

Authentic Assessment
authentic assessment is linked to a teaching and learning program that seeks to provide contextual tasks in a supportive environment so that the learner can be given feedback about their progress.

Capabilities
a compulsory component of the curriculum (Framework for Curriculum Provision, Department of Education and the Arts, Tas. 1993) representing broad goals for student learning across all learning areas. The capabilities are organised across Bands A,B,C and D, in five categories: Personal, Linguistic, Rational, Creative and Kinaesthetic.

Classic Literature Texts
refer to those texts that have been judged as outstanding examples of their type over time. They may include; poetry, drama, autobiography and biography, expository texts, film and television, novels and short stories (including children’s books), essays extracts, myths, legends, fables, fairy tales, traditional tales and ballads, including those texts that are part of an oral tradition. (for more information , see literature)

Collaboration
collaboration involves students working together to further their learning. Students work as pairs or in small or large groups to discuss, plan, respond, create texts or prepare presentations. Collaboration implies that students are working purposely and constructively toward a common goal.

Composing
composing is the activity that occurs when students produce written, spoken, visual, multimedia or performance texts. Composing involves the shaping and arrangement of textual elements to explore and express ideas and values and the processes of imagining, drafting, appraising, reflecting and refining. It depends on knowledge and understanding and use of texts, their language forms, features and structures.

Connotation
the implicit social meaning(s) of words in texts.

Constructivism
is a theory of learning. Knowledge is seen as a mental constuct that is built on and added to. This means that learners create an image of what the world is like and how it operates and they adapt and transform their understanding of new experiences in light of what they already '‘know'’. This theory of learning has consequences for teaching and learning strategies in the classroom. It means that teachers must recognise how a student already sees the world, and how that student believes it to operate. New information presented to the learner will be modified by what the student already knows and believes. By starting 'where the student is at’, that is, engaging prior knowledge with present learning, the teacher assists the students to build on his or her understanding of the world and its workings.

Contemporary Literature Texts
refer to those texts that have been judged as significant in recent times. They may include; picture books, wordless books, alphabet books, story telling, novels and short stories, films and television drama and comedy, autobiography, biography and documentary, performances of classic and contemporary drama and poetry, students’ own poems, stories and plays, poetry, scripted and improvised drama and modern plays. ( see also literature)

Context
the historical, personal, cultural and social factors and situations in which texts are produced and interpreted, and the influences such factors have on the production and comprehension of texts.

Contextual Understanding
understanding the way that context influences the creation and interpretation of texts. Situational context includes an awareness of the influence of such factors as: the purpose of the communication; the subject matter; whether the communication is spoken, written or visual; and the roles and relationships between the speaker or writer and the audience. Socio-cultural context includes an awareness of the influence of values, attitudes, beliefs and assumptions on the way that language is used and perceived. It also includes understanding of the way that language shapes values, attitudes and assumptions. (for more information, see contextual understanding)

Co-operative Learning
heterogeneous group work which has been designed to include five basic elements: individual accountability, positive interdependence, face-to-face interaction, social skills and group processing or reflection. Social skills are viewed as essential learning and team members undertake specific roles, engage in activities and tasks that build on teamwork, developing group cohesion in an atmosphere of trust. The teacher also observes the strengths and weaknesses of group processing and provides ongoing, structured feedback. (see also book reviews and collaboration )

Critical theory
critical theories or literary theories were developed as a means to understand the various ways that individuals and groups read and view texts. Each literary theory has a particular lens through which people interpret texts. Some of the more common literary theories include reader response, new criticism, feminism, Marxism, postcolonialism, poststructuralism and postmodernism.

Critical Literacy
provides students with the tools to question and critique the full range of written, visual and spoken texts so that they may understand the power of texts to influence an audience and reflect a particular set of values and beliefs. Students become aware of the complex interplay between form, purpose and audience as it acts upon them and as a tool for them to act upon the world. They learn to explicitly deconstruct texts to discern the ‘discourse’ represented in the text they are ‘reading’. (for more information, see critical literacy.

Cueing Systems - Grapho-phonic, Syntactic, Semantic
Three systems which students use to make meaning from print. Grapho-phonic elements are the cues about sound / symbol relationships in parts of words, syntactic elements are the grammatical and structural cues of a whole text and semantic elements are the cues for making meaning with words. All three systems are explicitly taught using a range of strategies including Reading Aloud, Shared Reading, Guided Reading and Independent Reading.

Deconstruction of Text
a critical process of identifying

the constituent elements of a text,
the relationships between the elements
their relationships with speaking, listening, viewing, reading and writing practices
the ways those elements contribute to, or challenge, dominant readings constructed of a text.
Students ask questions of a text such as:

‘What is the text about?
‘Whose views are represented in the text and who is missing in the text?’,
‘What kinds of language are used?’,
‘Who benefits from this text?’,
thus allowing students to see the possible ‘readings’ of a text and the power of socio-cultural and contextual elements in a text. (see also critical literacy)

Denotation
the literal or primary meaning of words in texts.

Discipline
a body of knowledge to which a particular set of principles, key questions and methods of testing assumptions are attributed.

Discourse(s)
may be thought of as the ways of thinking, being, acting and making meaning which construct specific texts, social practices and institutions. Participating in a particular discourse involves negotiating power relationships, values, identity, spoken and unspoken ways of doing things and excluding competing discourses. In the course of an ordinary day a teacher may be negotiating a number of competing discourses such as those of family, education, child care, employee, which are frequently alternative to those of the students they are teaching.

Dominant Reading(s)
those readings which the text is designed to promote, which represent the beliefs and values most powerful within a culture. Dominant readings are given privileged status and are frequently seen as being ‘natural’ or ‘commonsense’ interpretations.

Electronic Text
texts that are accessed through electronic means. They include:

e-mail,
CD ROMs and
web sites.

Encode/Decode
the processes of ascribing meaning to symbols, sounds and writing using grapho-phonic, syntactic and semantic knowledge (codebreaker role) In-context, explicit teaching of the particular grammars, structures and vocabularies of spoken, written and visual texts is essential to develop students facility with encoding and decoding.

Everyday Texts
those spoken and written texts that are part of people’s daily lives, both personal and public. Everyday texts used in English programs include those associated with daily life, with the specialised demands of schooling, and with the world of work. (for more information, see everyday texts )

Film Terms
To see a separate glossary of film terms, follow the link.

Four Roles of a Literate Person (Literacy Learner)
In the early1990s, Luke and Freebody identified four interrelated roles literate people use in making meaning of text. The roles are: code breaker, text participant, text user, and text analyst. In schools they are sometimes referred to as the four roles of a literacy learner.

Generative Topic
a significant topic, issue, concept or 'big idea' which provides depth and rigour, multiple connections and different perspectives required to support students' development of powerful understandings. A generative topic is typically central to one or more of the disciplines, interesting to both teachers and students, accessible and supports inquiry-based approaches to learning.

Genre
this approach to literacy instruction is a guided learning strategy for helping students with their reading and writing. It is based on understanding how writers structure their texts for specific purposes. Teaching in this way recognises the variety of text types students will use in life. The major genres used in schoolwork are narratives, instructions, recounts, reports, explanations and arguments. Each of these genres may be manifest in a range of text types. (for more information, see Five Perspectives on English Teaching )

Hegemony
the dominant school of thought which informs our understanding about teaching and about learning.

Hypertext
text that includes electronic links to other texts. This web site is an example of hypertext.

Ideology
systems of thought, values and actions which work to the advantage of particular groups of people within a society.

Inquiry
inquiry is a systematic investigation into an idea or issue, a search for knowledge and truth. Students learn how to define a specific contested idea or issue, to collect, critically analyse and organise information about the idea or issue from a variety of sources and clarify and share their understanding of the idea or issue. Inquiry is typically guided by a focus question.

Intertextuality
the meanings we make from one text influence how we are able to interact with other texts. We apply our prior knowledge of the content, contexts, structures and features of texts to the process of making meaning when we encounter new spoken, written or visual texts. Teachers need to make explicit for their students those connections which they cannot reasonably be expected to make if left to their own devices.

Key Competencies
The Mayer Report, 1993, identifies broad groups of skills developed across all learning areas.

Key Intended Numeracy Outcomes (KINOs)
a mandated set of numeracy outcomes for students in Tasmanian schools.

Language Modes
the language modes discussed in this site are reading, viewing, writing, listening and speaking)

Linguistic Structures and Features
in spoken and written language include patterns of text structure and organisation, textual cohesion, grammar, vocabulary, stylistic features, intonation, pronunciation, non-verbal language, print elements, paragraphing, punctuation, spelling, handwriting, presentation, referencing convention, ( see also linguistic structures and features in Language )

Mass Media Texts
mass audience forms including print, non-print and electronic texts such as newspapers, radio, television, magazines, advertising, drama, documentaries, journalism and reviews. (for more information, see texts )

Metacognition
knowledge about knowledge (or, thinking about thinking), that allows the learner to act upon their understandings, to recognise deficiencies and to have control over learning goals. A problem solving framework best facilitates metacognition in the classroom. (Six thinking hats, PMI)

Multiliteracies
literally meaning many literacies, multiliteracies is a recently-coined term which encapsulates two significant shifts in how we view literacy. The concept of multiliteracies acknowledges that in a rapidly changing, culturally and linguistically diverse society we need to use texts in critical, active and reflective ways. It also acknowledges that literacy goes beyond print language and incorporates the multiple modes of meaning found in new communication technologies.

Multiple Interpretation of Texts
Texts may be 'read' differently according to time, place, reason and the features and meanings presented. The 'dominant' reading of a text is that interpretation which is favoured by the author, supporting particular values and beliefs. Resistant readings challenge the author's favoured stance, for example, reading for gender or ethnicity in a traditional folk tale may reveal and justify a resistant reading of the text.

Multi-modal combinations of text
the language modes of speaking and listening, reading and viewing and writing are often presented in various combinations within a text. For example, film and television, advertisements and picture books, can include spoken, written and visual elements.

Negotiation
negotiation involves students making decisions about their own learning in collaboration with a teacher or other students. To negotiate effectively, students need information from the teacher about aims, resources, assessment procedures, constraints and non-negotiable outcomes. Negotiation is a collaborative process in which participants work to achieve outcomes that are acceptable to all.

Performance of Understanding
an activity that requires students to use knowledge in new ways or situations and that helps students to build, as well as demonstrate, their understanding.

Phonemes
'smaller-that-a syllable' units of spoken language.

Phonemic Awareness
the awareness of the sounds that make up spoken words.

Phonics
knowledge about letter-sound patterns and linking sounds with letters.

Poetry Glossary
an alphabetical list of terms used by poets and critics in discussing poetry. It includes examples of many of the terms.

Popular Literature Texts
these texts entertain rather than educate and avoid exploring issues and ideas in complex ways. They include; popular romance and adventure stories and thrillers, television serials and video clips, cartoons and comics, song lyrics, jokes, riddles and humorous verse. (see also literature)

Position(ing)
of the reader by the author using structural features and meanings in the text to support a particular set of values and beliefs and, or point of view. (see also critical literacy)

Privilege
when the composers of a text privilege something, they are giving it more importance than they do to other groups, ideas or things.

Reflection
reflection enables students to think about and review their learning and to make judgements and decisions about their work. It incorporates self-assessment, goal setting and planning. Reflection may be written or spoken and may be carried out individually or within a group.

Reliability in Assessment
is established when the instrument used for testing gains the same results within a prescribed error range over time.

Representation
representation is a construction in a text that attempts to portray an idea or reflect part of the real world. For example, characters in narrative texts can be seen as representations of men and women. A television drama such as The Bill is a representation of part of the London police force.

Representing
representing is the language mode that involves composing images by means of visual and other texts. These images and their meaning are composed using codes and conventions. The term can include such activities as graphically presenting the structure of a novel, making a film, composing a web page, or enacting a dramatic text.

Responding
responding is the activity that occurs when students read, listen to or view texts. It encompasses the personal and intellectual connections a student makes with texts. It also recognises that students and the texts to which they respond exist in social and cultural contexts. Responding involves reading, listening and viewing skills that depend on, but go beyond, the decoding of texts. It also involves identifying, comprehending, selecting, articulating, imagining, critically analysing and evaluating.

Rubric
a rubric is a key that describes varying levels of quality from excellent to poor for a specific assignment, skill, project, essay, research paper or performance. Its purposes are to give informative feedback about works in progress and to give detailed evaluation of final products. All rubrics have two features in common: a list of criteria and gradations of achievement. The criteria are chosen to define and guide the teaching and learning. Rubrics can be constructed by teachers or collaboratively by students and teachers.

Scaffold(ing)
a metaphor which describes the support offered by teachers in assisting students to achieve learning outcomes. Such scaffolding is characterised by explicit teaching of skills and knowledge targeting specific individuals, small groups or, where appropriate, whole classes.

Semiotic Systems
are used to analyse the social meaning of texts by exploring the key elements of texts and the way in which they are linked with, for example, the structure and narrative of a text. Such analysis reveals underpinning cultural beliefs and values.

Strategies
for speaking and listening, reading and viewing, and writing are part of the Language Strand across Bands A,B,C and D. They include listening for specific purposes, monitoring understanding, interpreting meaning, participating in dialogue, planning, preparing and presenting formal talks, evaluating performance of themselves and others, selecting texts, reading or viewing for specific purposes, coping with difficult texts, recording and organising information, clarifying key features of the writing situation, planning and preparing for writing, drafting reviewing, spelling, and, presenting the written product. (see also language strategies)

Tasmanian Literacy Outcomes (TLOs)
a mandated set of literacy outcomes for students in Tasmanian schools.

Teaching For Understanding
this pedagogical framework has four key elements - generative topics, understanding goals, performances of understanding and ongoing assessment. These elements help teachers to plan and teach more effectively.

Text
any communication, written, spoken or visual, involving language. Texts include television programs, conversations, billboard advertisements, novels, poetry, web pages etc. (for more details, see texts)

Text Type
text types include reports, recounts, explanations, expositions, descriptions, procedures or instructions, discussions, narratives and reviews. Text types are recognised by specific aspects of their subject matter, form and language.

Validity in Assessment
occurs when a testing instrument reflects the actual intentions of the teaching and learning outcomes it is designed to assess.

Visual text
any visual communication using language, signs or symbols which can be either print or electronic. Visual texts may be found in Literature, Media and Everyday text categories. (for more information, see texts)